A comprehensive survey of πίστις and πιστεύω:

ChatGPT 4o: Here is a detailed assessment of every verse from the New Testament that contains a form of πίστις (pistis, “faith”) or πιστεύω (pisteuō, “to believe”), with a commentary justifying the assigned score. Each score represents the degree to which the context of the verse emphasizes that belief should be proportionate to the evidence.

(This list of occurrences and scores is followed by a histogram and relevant essays.)

—— Matthew

• Matthew 8:10 – Score: 20
  • Commentary: The centurion’s faith is praised, but it’s not based on any visible or rational evidence. Jesus commends his faith for understanding authority, suggesting that faith here is more relational than evidence-based.
• Matthew 9:2 – Score: 15
  • Commentary: Jesus forgives the sins of a paralyzed man based on the faith of his friends. The passage emphasizes trust in Jesus rather than belief grounded in evidence, thus warranting a low score.
• Matthew 9:22 – Score: 20
  • Commentary: The woman with the issue of blood is healed because of her faith. There is no suggestion that her belief is based on clear evidence; it seems to be more a result of desperation and trust.
• Matthew 9:29 – Score: 20
  • Commentary: Jesus heals two blind men, telling them it will be done according to their faith. This is another instance of faith being rewarded without a grounding in evidence, leading to a low score.
• Matthew 15:28 – Score: 15
  • Commentary: The Canaanite woman’s persistent faith is rewarded by Jesus. Her belief is driven by desperation and hope rather than empirical evidence, which limits the rational basis of her faith.
• Matthew 17:20 – Score: 5
  • Commentary: Jesus speaks of faith the size of a mustard seed moving mountains, a metaphorical expression that emphasizes extraordinary faith rather than evidence-based belief.
• Matthew 21:21 – Score: 5
  • Commentary: The disciples are encouraged to have faith that can move mountains. The statement is hyperbolic and does not promote belief proportionate to evidence, leading to a very low score.
• Matthew 21:22 – Score: 10
  • Commentary: Jesus tells his disciples that whatever they ask for in prayer, they will receive if they believe. Faith is presented as a powerful force, but without any direct connection to the level of evidence, thus a low score.
• Matthew 23:23 – Score: 0
  • Commentary: This verse focuses on justice, mercy, and faithfulness, with no mention of the role of evidence in belief. Faith here seems more like a moral virtue than an epistemic one.
• Matthew 24:23 – Score: 25
  • Commentary: Jesus warns his followers to be cautious of false claims of messiahs. There is an indirect encouragement to evaluate such claims carefully, hinting at the necessity for evidence-based discernment.
• Matthew 27:42 – Score: 30
  • Commentary: The mockers at the crucifixion challenge Jesus to come down from the cross so they may believe. This indicates that their belief would require evidence, albeit in a skeptical and mocking manner.

—— Mark

• Mark 1:15 – Score: 40
  • Commentary: Jesus calls people to repent and believe the good news. There is an implicit suggestion that the message is credible because it fulfills prophecy, providing some connection to evidence.
• Mark 2:5 – Score: 10
  • Commentary: Jesus forgives a paralyzed man’s sins because of the faith of those who brought him. The passage emphasizes trust in Jesus’ authority rather than belief grounded in evidence.
• Mark 4:40 – Score: 5
  • Commentary: Jesus rebukes his disciples for their lack of faith during a storm, but there is no mention of evidence-based reasoning. Faith here is presented as trust in Jesus’ power.
• Mark 5:34 – Score: 20
  • Commentary: Jesus tells the woman with the issue of blood that her faith has healed her. There is little emphasis on any rational evidence behind her faith, which seems to stem more from desperation.
• Mark 9:23-24 – Score: 30
  • Commentary: A father asks Jesus to heal his son, expressing a mixture of faith and doubt. Jesus replies, “Everything is possible for one who believes,” indicating a tension between doubt and faith, though not strongly tied to evidence.
• Mark 10:52 – Score: 20
  • Commentary: Jesus heals the blind man and attributes his healing to his faith. The man’s faith is in Jesus’ power, but there is no emphasis on evidence-based belief.
• Mark 11:22 – Score: 5
  • Commentary: Jesus encourages his disciples to have faith in God, implying that such faith can achieve the impossible (e.g., moving mountains). This faith is not portrayed as based on evidence.
• Mark 11:24 – Score: 10
  • Commentary: The verse encourages belief in the power of prayer, suggesting that whatever is asked will be granted if there is faith. There is little to no focus on belief being proportionate to evidence.
• Mark 11:31 – Score: 25
  • Commentary: The chief priests and elders debate the authority of John the Baptist, and their questioning involves weighing evidence. There is a slight emphasis on evaluating evidence here.
• Mark 13:21 – Score: 30
  • Commentary: Jesus warns his disciples not to believe false claims about the Messiah. There is an indirect encouragement to discern the truth based on evidence or lack thereof.
• Mark 16:13 – Score: 15
  • Commentary: The disciples did not believe the testimony of those who had seen Jesus resurrected. The passage suggests skepticism toward second-hand evidence, but does not promote rational belief proportionate to direct evidence.
• Mark 16:16-17 – Score: 10
  • Commentary: The passage links belief and baptism with salvation. Faith is required for salvation, but there is no emphasis on evidence for this belief.

—— Luke

• Luke 1:20 – Score: 50
  • Commentary: Zechariah is struck mute for not believing the angel Gabriel’s message, despite Gabriel’s authoritative position. The passage suggests that Zechariah should have believed based on the evidence of the angel’s message.
• Luke 1:45 – Score: 30
  • Commentary: Elizabeth praises Mary for her faith in God’s promise. While there is an indirect suggestion that Mary’s belief was based on her trust in God, the evidence is limited to divine revelation.
• Luke 5:20 – Score: 10
  • Commentary: Jesus forgives the sins of the paralyzed man based on the faith of those who brought him. The emphasis is on trust in Jesus’ authority rather than rational belief based on evidence.
• Luke 7:9 – Score: 25
  • Commentary: Jesus marvels at the centurion’s faith, noting that it surpasses that of the Israelites. The centurion’s belief is not grounded in clear evidence but in his understanding of authority.
• Luke 7:50 – Score: 10
  • Commentary: Jesus tells the sinful woman that her faith has saved her. Her faith is not presented as evidence-based, but rather as trust in Jesus’ ability to forgive sins.
• Luke 8:12-13 – Score: 30
  • Commentary: In the parable of the sower, Jesus describes different responses to the message of the Kingdom. Some believe for a time, but there is an element of superficiality, indicating that their belief may lack deep understanding or evidence.
• Luke 8:25 – Score: 10
  • Commentary: Jesus asks his disciples where their faith is after calming a storm. The passage presents faith as trust in Jesus rather than belief grounded in evidence.
• Luke 8:48 – Score: 10
  • Commentary: Jesus tells the woman with the issue of blood that her faith has healed her. The faith in question is not connected to evidence but rather a desperate hope for healing.
• Luke 8:50 – Score: 10
  • Commentary: Jesus tells Jairus to believe and his daughter will be healed. The faith required is not tied to evidence but to trust in Jesus’ power.
• Luke 12:46 – Score: 20
  • Commentary: This verse concerns being faithful and responsible, with no direct relation to belief proportionate to evidence. However, the implication of being faithful to duties carries some connection to rational evaluation of responsibilities.
• Luke 16:11 – Score: 30
  • Commentary: Jesus speaks of being faithful with worldly wealth. This can imply the necessity of good judgment and responsibility, indirectly connecting belief with rational decisions based on evidence of one’s faithfulness.
• Luke 17:5-6 – Score: 10
  • Commentary: The apostles ask Jesus to increase their faith, and Jesus responds that even a small amount of faith can do great things. This is a metaphorical statement, not grounded in proportionate evidence.
• Luke 17:19 – Score: 10
  • Commentary: Jesus tells the healed leper that his faith has made him well. The verse emphasizes trust rather than evidence-based belief.
• Luke 18:8 – Score: 30
  • Commentary: Jesus wonders if he will find faith on Earth when he returns. There is a slight implication of a dwindling faith due to lack of evidence or a challenging world, though this is not explicit.
• Luke 18:42 – Score: 10
  • Commentary: Jesus heals a blind man and attributes the healing to his faith. As with similar healing stories, there is no evidence presented as the basis of belief.
• Luke 22:32 – Score: 30
  • Commentary: Jesus tells Peter that he has prayed for his faith not to fail. The passage suggests the perseverance of faith, but not necessarily grounded in evidence.

—— John

• John 1:7 – Score: 40
  • Commentary: John the Baptist came to bear witness to the light so that all might believe. His testimony is evidence for belief, though it is based on personal experience rather than empirical proof.
• John 1:12 – Score: 25
  • Commentary: Those who believed in Jesus were given the right to become children of God. The belief is based on the reception of Jesus’ message, with limited evidence in play.
• John 2:11 – Score: 50
  • Commentary: After Jesus turns water into wine, his disciples believe in him. The miracle acts as evidence that prompts belief, aligning faith somewhat with the rational evaluation of events.
• John 2:22-23 – Score: 60
  • Commentary: After Jesus’ resurrection, his disciples remember his words and believe in him. The resurrection acts as strong evidence that directly prompts belief, making this an example of belief proportionate to evidence.
• John 3:12 – Score: 20
  • Commentary: Jesus speaks to Nicodemus about believing in heavenly things. The belief he calls for does not seem to be tied to rational evidence but rather faith in divine mysteries.
• John 3:15-18 – Score: 25
  • Commentary: The passage emphasizes belief in Jesus for eternal life, but the focus is on faith in Jesus’ identity rather than evidence proportionate to belief.
• John 3:36 – Score: 30
  • Commentary: The verse contrasts belief in Jesus with unbelief, resulting in eternal life or wrath. It calls for belief but does not emphasize the need for proportional evidence.
• John 4:21, 39-42, 48, 50, 53 – Score: 55
  • Commentary: The Samaritan woman and her town believe in Jesus after hearing his words and witnessing a miracle. There is a substantial connection between belief and evidence in this passage, as belief follows direct interaction or testimony.
• John 5:24, 38, 44-47 – Score: 40
  • Commentary: Belief is based on hearing Jesus’ word and trusting in the Father who sent him. While faith is expected, it is somewhat supported by Jesus’ works and the witness of scripture.
• John 6:29-30, 35-40, 47, 64, 69 – Score: 50
  • Commentary: Jesus speaks of himself as the bread of life, and belief is central to salvation. Some miracles are mentioned as evidence, but belief also requires going beyond the visible evidence to trust in Jesus’ divine mission.
• John 7:5, 31, 38-39, 48 – Score: 30
  • Commentary: Mixed responses to Jesus are evident in this passage. Some believe because of his signs, but others remain skeptical. There is an element of evidence-based belief, but it is not the primary focus.
• John 8:24, 30-31, 45-46 – Score: 30
  • Commentary: Jesus’ audience is divided in their response to him, with some believing while others accuse him. Jesus invites belief based on his testimony, but evidence is not highlighted.
• John 9:18, 35-38 – Score: 50
  • Commentary: The formerly blind man believes in Jesus after being healed, a case where evidence (the miracle) leads to faith. This is one of the clearer connections between belief and evidence.
• John 10:25-26, 37-38, 42 – Score: 60
  • Commentary: Jesus appeals to his works as evidence for belief. He encourages people to believe based on the miracles, making this one of the stronger examples of belief tied to evidence.
• John 11:15, 25-27, 40, 42, 45-48 – Score: 70
  • Commentary: The resurrection of Lazarus leads many to believe in Jesus, showing a strong link between evidence (the miracle) and belief. This passage emphasizes that belief can follow direct evidence.
• John 12:36-39, 42, 44, 46 – Score: 50
  • Commentary: Belief in Jesus as the light of the world is encouraged, but some still do not believe despite the signs. There is an element of evidence, but also an expectation of faith beyond that evidence.
• John 13:19 – Score: 40
  • Commentary: Jesus predicts Judas’ betrayal so that when it happens, his disciples will believe. The prediction acts as a form of evidence for future belief.
• John 14:1, 10-12, 29 – Score: 60
  • Commentary: Jesus appeals to his works as evidence for belief. He acknowledges that his actions should be enough to prompt faith, indicating a significant connection between belief and evidence.
• John 16:9, 27, 30-31 – Score: 50
  • Commentary: The disciples express belief in Jesus after hearing his words. While the belief is based on understanding Jesus, it is not entirely proportionate to direct evidence.
• John 17:8, 20-21 – Score: 40
  • Commentary: Jesus prays for future believers, emphasizing belief based on the words of his followers. There is an indirect appeal to testimony as evidence, though it is not a strong emphasis.
• John 19:35 – Score: 70
  • Commentary: The testimony of the eyewitness who saw Jesus’ death is meant to prompt belief. This is a clear case of belief proportionate to evidence.
• John 20:8, 25, 27, 29, 31 – Score: 80
  • Commentary: Thomas believes after seeing and touching the risen Jesus, emphasizing belief based on direct, empirical evidence. Jesus, however, also blesses those who believe without seeing, suggesting that while evidence-based belief is affirmed, faith without evidence is also valued.

—— Acts

• Acts 2:44 – Score: 20
  • Commentary: The believers in this passage share all things in common, showing their faith. This is more about community trust than evidence-based belief.
• Acts 3:16 – Score: 50
  • Commentary: Peter attributes the healing of a man to faith in Jesus’ name. The miracle serves as evidence for the faith of the crowd, though the emphasis is more on Jesus’ power than on proportional belief.
• Acts 4:4, 32 – Score: 30
  • Commentary: Many people believe after hearing Peter and John’s testimony. The belief seems to be based on the apostles’ words, but there is no clear emphasis on evidence for the faith of the believers.
• Acts 5:14 – Score: 25
  • Commentary: More people believe in the Lord and join the community. The belief seems to follow the apostles’ works, though no specific evidence is highlighted.
• Acts 6:5, 7 – Score: 35
  • Commentary: The selection of Stephen and others as leaders reflects their strong faith. There is a sense that their faith is seen as reliable, though not necessarily based on evidence.
• Acts 8:12-13, 37 – Score: 40
  • Commentary: Many Samaritans believe after seeing Philip’s miracles. The miracles serve as evidence that encourages belief, though the emphasis is more on the wonders than on the rational evaluation of evidence.
• Acts 9:42 – Score: 30
  • Commentary: After Peter raises Tabitha from the dead, many believe. The miracle serves as evidence for their faith, but the text focuses on the response rather than proportional belief.
• Acts 10:43 – Score: 50
  • Commentary: Peter preaches that all who believe in Jesus will have their sins forgiven. The appeal is based on the testimony of the prophets, suggesting some grounding in evidence, though faith is still required.
• Acts 11:17, 21, 24 – Score: 45
  • Commentary: Many believe in the Lord as the apostles spread the message. The belief seems to follow the apostles’ works, though the focus is on the power of the message rather than evidence.
• Acts 13:8, 12, 39, 41-43, 48 – Score: 55
  • Commentary: The proconsul believes after witnessing a miracle performed by Paul. This shows a clear link between evidence and belief, though faith is not entirely proportional to the evidence presented.
• Acts 14:1, 9, 22-23, 27 – Score: 50
  • Commentary: Many believe after hearing Paul and Barnabas preach, and some healings take place. The signs and wonders provide evidence, though the emphasis is on the power of faith.
• Acts 15:7, 9, 11 – Score: 40
  • Commentary: Peter speaks of the Gentiles being saved through faith. There is some reference to the work of the Holy Spirit as evidence for faith, but it is not the main focus.
• Acts 16:5, 15, 31, 34 – Score: 60
  • Commentary: People believe in the Lord as a result of the apostles’ preaching, with miracles serving as supporting evidence for their faith. The connection between belief and evidence is more prominent here.
• Acts 17:4-5, 11-12, 34 – Score: 65
  • Commentary: Many believe after examining the scriptures to see if Paul’s teachings are true. This passage emphasizes belief based on careful evaluation of evidence, especially in the case of the Bereans.
• Acts 18:8, 27 – Score: 55
  • Commentary: Crispus and others believe after hearing Paul’s preaching. The belief is supported by miracles and Paul’s testimony, showing some connection to evidence.
• Acts 19:2, 4, 18 – Score: 40
  • Commentary: People believe after hearing about Jesus and receiving the Holy Spirit. While there is some connection to evidence (such as the gifts of the Spirit), the emphasis is still on faith in the message.
• Acts 20:21 – Score: 50
  • Commentary: Paul preaches repentance and faith in Jesus. The faith is grounded in the witness of Jesus’ works, though the focus is on belief in his message.
• Acts 21:20, 25 – Score: 40
  • Commentary: Many Jewish believers follow the law, and Gentile believers are reminded of their obligations. The faith seems more tied to tradition than to rational evidence.
• Acts 22:19 – Score: 30
  • Commentary: Paul recalls his former persecution of believers, showing how difficult it was for him to accept the faith. There is an indirect acknowledgment that belief came after encountering strong evidence (Jesus’ appearance to him).
• Acts 24:14 – Score: 30
  • Commentary: Paul professes his faith in front of Felix. His belief is based on the scriptures and the resurrection of Jesus, but there is no strong emphasis on the rationality of this faith.
• Acts 26:18, 27 – Score: 50
  • Commentary: Paul speaks of his mission to bring people from darkness to light through faith in Jesus. The evidence for belief is more focused on his testimony and miracles, making it more about trust than proportionate evidence.
• Acts 28:24 – Score: 50
  • Commentary: Some believe Paul’s message, while others do not. There is an implicit acknowledgment that belief depends on the evaluation of evidence, but the text does not explicitly stress proportionality.

—— Romans

• Romans 1:5, 8, 12, 16-17 – Score: 45
  • Commentary: Paul speaks of faith being made known throughout the world and the righteous living by faith. The focus is on the power of the gospel, though faith is somewhat linked to the fulfillment of prophecy, giving it some grounding in evidence.
• Romans 3:2-3, 22, 25-28, 30-31 – Score: 50
  • Commentary: Paul speaks of righteousness coming through faith. While there is no direct emphasis on evidence, Paul presents faith in Jesus as the fulfillment of the law and the prophets, suggesting some link to rational evaluation.
• Romans 4:3, 5, 9, 11-14, 16, 18-20, 24 – Score: 55
  • Commentary: Abraham’s faith is credited to him as righteousness. Paul presents Abraham’s faith as trust in God’s promise, which was based on God’s past faithfulness, providing some indirect evidence for his belief.
• Romans 5:1-2 – Score: 40
  • Commentary: Faith in Jesus brings peace with God. The emphasis is on trust in Jesus rather than evidence, though Paul appeals to the effects of faith (justification) as a form of evidence.
• Romans 6:8 – Score: 30
  • Commentary: Paul states that if we have died with Christ, we believe we will also live with him. The belief is based on the resurrection, but the passage does not emphasize evidence proportionality.
• Romans 9:30, 32-33 – Score: 35
  • Commentary: Paul contrasts the righteousness of faith with the law. The emphasis is on faith in God’s promises rather than belief based on evidence.
• Romans 10:4, 6, 8-11, 14, 16-17 – Score: 50
  • Commentary: Faith comes from hearing the message, and the message is heard through the word about Christ. Paul presents belief in the gospel as essential, with some grounding in the fulfillment of scripture.
• Romans 11:20 – Score: 45
  • Commentary: The Gentiles stand by faith, while Israel was cut off for unbelief. The faith here is in God’s salvation plan, which has some scriptural evidence behind it, but the emphasis is on trust.
• Romans 12:3, 6 – Score: 40
  • Commentary: Paul urges believers to think of themselves with sober judgment according to the faith God has given them. The faith is presented as a divine gift, with no explicit connection to evidence.
• Romans 13:11 – Score: 30
  • Commentary: Paul speaks of salvation being nearer now than when they first believed. The belief is based on the expectation of Christ’s return, with no direct evidence emphasized.
• Romans 14:1-2, 22-23 – Score: 35
  • Commentary: Paul speaks of accepting those whose faith is weak, and that everything not done in faith is sin. The focus is on individual conviction rather than evidence-based belief.
• Romans 15:13 – Score: 50
  • Commentary: Paul prays that believers would be filled with hope by the power of the Holy Spirit through faith. While there is some reference to the Spirit’s work as evidence, the emphasis remains on faith beyond evidence.

—— 1 Corinthians

• 1 Corinthians 1:21 – Score: 40
  • Commentary: Paul contrasts the wisdom of the world with the wisdom of God, which is received by faith. The focus is on the seeming foolishness of faith to those who seek rational evidence, suggesting a lower score.
• 1 Corinthians 2:5 – Score: 45
  • Commentary: Paul emphasizes that faith should not rest on human wisdom but on God’s power. There is an indirect appeal to evidence (God’s power), but faith itself transcends this.
• 1 Corinthians 12:9 – Score: 40
  • Commentary: Paul lists faith as one of the spiritual gifts. The faith in question is not linked to evidence but is seen as a gift from God.
• 1 Corinthians 13:2, 7, 13 – Score: 50
  • Commentary: Paul speaks of faith that can move mountains but emphasizes that without love, it is meaningless. Faith is presented as a powerful force, though not necessarily grounded in evidence.
• 1 Corinthians 14:22 – Score: 40
  • Commentary: Paul discusses the purpose of tongues and prophecy, saying that tongues are a sign for unbelievers. There is an indirect connection between belief and the signs, but faith itself is not presented as proportionate to evidence.
• 1 Corinthians 15:2, 11, 14, 17 – Score: 55
  • Commentary: Paul speaks of the resurrection of Christ as the foundation of Christian faith. Belief in the resurrection is grounded in the testimony of witnesses, making this a stronger case for evidence-based belief.

—— 2 Corinthians

• 2 Corinthians 1:24 – Score: 30
  • Commentary: Paul emphasizes that he does not lord over their faith but works with them for their joy. Faith is seen as something personal and relational, with little emphasis on evidence.
• 2 Corinthians 4:13 – Score: 50
  • Commentary: Paul speaks of having the same spirit of faith as the psalmist who believed and spoke. The faith here is based on trust in God’s promises, with some indirect grounding in scripture as evidence.
• 2 Corinthians 5:7 – Score: 10
  • Commentary: Paul says that believers walk by faith, not by sight. This directly contrasts faith with evidence, indicating a very low score.
• 2 Corinthians 8:7 – Score: 40
  • Commentary: Paul encourages believers to excel in faith, love, and generosity. Faith here is seen as a virtue, with no explicit connection to evidence.
• 2 Corinthians 10:15 – Score: 45
  • Commentary: Paul speaks of boasting in the faith of the Corinthians, which has grown. There is some implication that faith grows through experience, but it is not directly tied to evidence.
• 2 Corinthians 13:5 – Score: 50
  • Commentary: Paul urges the Corinthians to examine themselves to see if they are in the faith. This self-examination suggests an indirect appeal to evidence (the fruits of their faith), making this passage moderately evidence-based.

—— Galatians

• Galatians 1:23 – Score: 40
  • Commentary: Paul speaks of how people praised God because of his transformation from a persecutor to a preacher. The change in Paul’s life serves as a form of evidence for the truth of his message, though the emphasis is more on faith.
• Galatians 2:16, 20 – Score: 50
  • Commentary: Paul emphasizes that people are justified by faith in Christ, not by works of the law. While the faith is presented as trust in Jesus, there is an indirect appeal to evidence in the form of Jesus’ works and resurrection.
• Galatians 3:2, 5-9, 11-12, 14, 22, 23, 25-26 – Score: 50
  • Commentary: Paul contrasts faith with the law, saying that faith comes from hearing the message. The message is based on the fulfillment of scripture, making faith somewhat grounded in evidence.
• Galatians 5:5-6, 22 – Score: 50
  • Commentary: Paul speaks of faith expressing itself through love and the fruit of the Spirit. While the faith is presented as a virtue, the work of the Spirit can be seen as a form of evidence for the believer’s faith.
• Galatians 6:10 – Score: 45
  • Commentary: Paul encourages believers to do good to all people, especially fellow believers. Faith is implied in this call to action, though there is little emphasis on evidence.

—— Ephesians

• Ephesians 1:1, 13, 15, 19 – Score: 50
  • Commentary: Paul speaks of the faith of the Ephesians, which is rooted in the message they heard. There is some connection to evidence, as the message is the gospel that was preached to them.
• Ephesians 2:8 – Score: 40
  • Commentary: Paul emphasizes that believers are saved by grace through faith, which is a gift from God. The focus is on the divine nature of faith rather than its grounding in evidence.
• Ephesians 3:12, 17 – Score: 45
  • Commentary: Faith in Christ gives believers confidence to approach God. The emphasis is on the relational aspect of faith, with some indirect connection to the evidence of God’s works in Christ.
• Ephesians 4:5, 13 – Score: 40
  • Commentary: Paul speaks of the unity of the faith and the knowledge of Christ. While there is a call to grow in knowledge, faith itself is not directly tied to evidence in this passage.
• Ephesians 6:16, 23 – Score: 35
  • Commentary: Faith is described as a shield that protects believers. The metaphorical use of faith here does not emphasize proportional belief or evidence.

—— Philippians

• Philippians 1:25, 27, 29 – Score: 50
  • Commentary: Paul encourages believers to stand firm in the faith and suffer for Christ. The faith here is based on the gospel message, which has some grounding in evidence, though the emphasis is on endurance.
• Philippians 2:17 – Score: 40
  • Commentary: Paul speaks of being poured out like a drink offering on the sacrifice and service of their faith. The faith here is seen as a virtue, with little emphasis on evidence.
• Philippians 3:9 – Score: 45
  • Commentary: Paul speaks of the righteousness that comes through faith in Christ. The focus is on faith in Jesus, with some grounding in the fulfillment of the law and the prophets.

—— Colossians

• Colossians 1:4, 23 – Score: 50
  • Commentary: Paul speaks of the Colossians’ faith in Christ, which is based on the message they heard. The message has some grounding in evidence (e.g., the witness of the apostles), but faith is still emphasized.
• Colossians 2:5, 7, 12 – Score: 45
  • Commentary: Paul encourages the Colossians to continue in their faith, which is rooted in Christ. The emphasis is on trust in Jesus, with some connection to evidence in the form of the gospel message.
• Colossians 3:15 – Score: 40
  • Commentary: Paul speaks of the peace of Christ ruling in their hearts through faith. The focus is on the internal experience of faith, with little connection to evidence.

—— 1 Thessalonians

• 1 Thessalonians 1:3, 7-8 – Score: 40
  • Commentary: Paul speaks of the Thessalonians’ faith being known throughout the region. The faith is based on the gospel they received, with some indirect grounding in evidence, but the emphasis is on their endurance.
• 1 Thessalonians 2:13 – Score: 50
  • Commentary: Paul thanks God that the Thessalonians accepted the message as the word of God. Their belief is based on the message they heard, with some connection to evidence (e.g., the witness of the apostles).
• 1 Thessalonians 3:2, 5-7, 10 – Score: 45
  • Commentary: Paul expresses concern for the Thessalonians’ faith and sends Timothy to strengthen them. The faith is seen as something that can be tested and strengthened, with an indirect appeal to evidence.
• 1 Thessalonians 5:8 – Score: 30
  • Commentary: Paul encourages believers to be sober and put on the breastplate of faith and love. The metaphorical use of faith here does not emphasize evidence.

—— 2 Thessalonians

• 2 Thessalonians 1:3-4, 10-11 – Score: 40
  • Commentary: Paul speaks of the Thessalonians’ growing faith and perseverance. While the faith is praised, there is little direct connection to evidence.
• 2 Thessalonians 2:11-12, 13 – Score: 35
  • Commentary: Paul speaks of people being deceived because they refused to love the truth. There is an indirect appeal to truth as evidence for belief, but faith is still emphasized over evidence.

—— 1 Timothy

• 1 Timothy 1:2, 4-5, 12, 14, 16, 19 – Score: 40
  • Commentary: Paul speaks of faith as central to Timothy’s life and ministry. The faith is seen as a virtue, with little emphasis on evidence.
• 1 Timothy 2:7, 15 – Score: 30
  • Commentary: Paul speaks of salvation through faith. The emphasis is on trust in God’s plan rather than proportional belief based on evidence.
• 1 Timothy 3:9, 13 – Score: 35
  • Commentary: Paul encourages deacons to hold onto the mystery of the faith. Faith here is seen as something mysterious, with no emphasis on evidence.
• 1 Timothy 4:3, 6, 10, 12 – Score: 30
  • Commentary: Paul encourages Timothy to set an example in faith. The faith is seen as a virtue, with little emphasis on evidence.
• 1 Timothy 5:8 – Score: 25
  • Commentary: Paul speaks of the importance of providing for one’s family, suggesting that those who do not provide have denied the faith. The faith is seen as connected to ethical behavior, with no emphasis on evidence.
• 1 Timothy 6:2, 10, 12, 21 – Score: 35
  • Commentary: Paul speaks of the dangers of loving money and urges Timothy to fight the good fight of faith. The faith is seen as a struggle, with little connection to evidence.

—— 2 Timothy

• 2 Timothy 1:5, 12-13 – Score: 40
  • Commentary: Paul speaks of Timothy’s sincere faith and his trust in God. The faith is seen as personal and sincere, with no direct emphasis on evidence.
• 2 Timothy 2:18, 22 – Score: 30
  • Commentary: Paul speaks of those who have wandered from the faith. There is some indirect appeal to evidence (staying true to the gospel message), but the focus is on personal conviction.
• 2 Timothy 3:8, 10, 15 – Score: 40
  • Commentary: Paul speaks of Timothy’s faith, which is based on the scriptures. There is an indirect appeal to the authority of scripture as evidence for faith.
• 2 Timothy 4:7 – Score: 45
  • Commentary: Paul speaks of having kept the faith despite hardship. The faith is seen as enduring and tested, though not necessarily grounded in evidence.

—— Titus

• Titus 1:1, 4, 13 – Score: 50
  • Commentary: Paul speaks of the faith of God’s elect, which is based on knowledge of the truth. There is some connection to evidence, as the faith is grounded in truth.
• Titus 2:2 – Score: 35
  • Commentary: Paul encourages older men to be sound in faith. The faith is seen as a virtue, with no direct emphasis on evidence.
• Titus 3:8, 15 – Score: 50
  • Commentary: Paul encourages believers to devote themselves to good works, which come from faith. There is some connection to evidence, as the faith produces visible results (good works).

—— Philemon

• Philemon 1:5-6 – Score: 40
  • Commentary: Paul speaks of Philemon’s love and faith toward Jesus. The faith is seen as personal and relational, with little emphasis on evidence.

—— Hebrews

• Hebrews 3:12, 18-19 – Score: 30
  • Commentary: The author warns against unbelief, which prevents entering God’s rest. The faith is seen as trust in God’s promises, with no direct emphasis on evidence.
• Hebrews 4:2-3 – Score: 45
  • Commentary: The author speaks of the gospel being preached to the Israelites, but it was of no value because they did not combine it with faith. There is an indirect appeal to evidence (the fulfillment of God’s promises), though faith is still required.
• Hebrews 6:1, 12 – Score: 40
  • Commentary: The author encourages believers to move on from elementary teachings about faith. The faith is seen as foundational, with no direct emphasis on evidence.
• Hebrews 10:22, 38-39 – Score: 35
  • Commentary: The author encourages believers to draw near to God in full assurance of faith. The faith is seen as trust in God, with little emphasis on evidence.
• Hebrews 11:1-39 – Score: 50
  • Commentary: The famous “faith chapter” defines faith as confidence in what we hope for and assurance about what we do not see. While faith is presented as trust beyond evidence, the author provides examples of how faith was vindicated through God’s actions, giving it some grounding in evidence.
• Hebrews 12:2 – Score: 45
  • Commentary: The author speaks of Jesus as the author and perfecter of faith. The faith is seen as something initiated by Jesus, with some indirect connection to evidence in the form of his resurrection.
• Hebrews 13:7 – Score: 35
  • Commentary: The author encourages believers to imitate the faith of their leaders. The faith is seen as something to be emulated, with little emphasis on evidence.

—— James

• James 1:3, 6 – Score: 40
  • Commentary: James speaks of faith being tested and producing perseverance. The faith is seen as something that can be tested, though the emphasis is more on endurance than evidence.
• James 2:1, 5, 14-24, 26 – Score: 50
  • Commentary: James emphasizes that faith without works is dead. The faith is seen as something that produces visible results (works), giving it some grounding in evidence.
• James 5:15 – Score: 35
  • Commentary: James speaks of the prayer of faith making the sick person well. The faith is seen as powerful, though the emphasis is more on trust than on evidence.

—— 1 Peter

• 1 Peter 1:5, 7-9, 21 – Score: 50
  • Commentary: Peter speaks of faith being refined through trials, resulting in praise, glory, and honor when Jesus is revealed. The faith is seen as something that will be vindicated by evidence (Jesus’ return), giving it some grounding in evidence.
• 1 Peter 2:6-7 – Score: 40
  • Commentary: Peter speaks of those who believe in the cornerstone (Jesus) not being put to shame. The faith is seen as trust in Jesus, with some indirect connection to evidence (his resurrection).
• 1 Peter 5:9 – Score: 35
  • Commentary: Peter encourages believers to resist the devil by standing firm in the faith. The faith is seen as a defense against spiritual attack, with little emphasis on evidence.

—— 2 Peter

• 2 Peter 1:1, 5 – Score: 50
  • Commentary: Peter speaks of faith being the foundation for other virtues. The faith is seen as based on the knowledge of God and Jesus, with some connection to evidence (the witness of Jesus’ works).

—— 1 John

• 1 John 3:23 – Score: 40
  • Commentary: John emphasizes the command to believe in Jesus and love one another. The faith is seen as obedience to a command, with little emphasis on evidence.
• 1 John 4:1, 16 – Score: 40
  • Commentary: John encourages believers to test the spirits to see if they are from God. There is some indirect appeal to evidence (testing the spirits), though faith is still emphasized.
• 1 John 5:1, 5, 10, 13 – Score: 45
  • Commentary: John speaks of faith in Jesus as the Son of God. The faith is based on the testimony of God, giving it some connection to evidence, though the emphasis remains on trust.

—— Jude

• Jude 1:3, 5, 20 – Score: 40
  • Commentary: Jude speaks of contending for the faith and remembering how God punished those who did not believe. The faith is seen as something that must be defended, with some indirect connection to evidence (the judgment of unbelievers).

—— Revelation

• Revelation 1:5 – Score: 50
  • Commentary: John speaks of Jesus as the faithful witness. The faith is seen as based on Jesus’ witness, giving it some connection to evidence.
• Revelation 2:10, 13, 19 – Score: 45
  • Commentary: Jesus encourages the churches to remain faithful in the face of persecution. The faith is seen as endurance in difficult times, with little emphasis on evidence.
• Revelation 3:8, 10, 14 – Score: 50
  • Commentary: Jesus commends the churches for keeping the faith. The faith is seen as obedience to Jesus’ commands, with some connection to evidence (his resurrection and promises).
• Revelation 13:10 – Score: 30
  • Commentary: The call for endurance and faith in this verse is more about perseverance in the face of persecution, with no emphasis on evidence.
• Revelation 14:12 – Score: 50
  • Commentary: The saints are commended for keeping the commandments and their faith in Jesus. The faith is seen as obedience, with some connection to evidence (the fulfillment of God’s promises).
• Revelation 17:14 – Score: 45
  • Commentary: The faithful who are with the Lamb will overcome the forces of evil. The faith is seen as loyalty to Jesus, with little direct emphasis on evidence.

Here is the bar chart showing the distribution of various translations of the Greek terms πίστις (pistis) and πιστεύω (pisteuō) into English terms such as “faith,” “belief,” “trust,” “confidence,” and “assurance.” The most frequent translation is “faith,” followed by “belief/believe,” with smaller occurrences of “trust,” “confidence,” and “assurance.” This distribution highlights the primary focus on “faith” as the dominant rendering of these Greek terms in the New Testament.

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Here is a histogram representing the distribution of scores for the degree to which each verse emphasizes that belief must map to the relevant evidence. The scores are grouped into 5-point buckets, showing the frequency of verses falling into each score range.

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The Incompatibility of Biblical Faith with Evidence-Based Belief

A critical examination of the New Testament reveals that the concept of faith in the Bible cannot be equated with belief that is proportionate to the degree of evidence. While there are instances where signs, miracles, and fulfilled prophecies play a role in prompting belief, the overwhelming emphasis is on trust—often in the absence of evidence, or even in contradiction to it. Biblical faith, as presented in the New Testament, is primarily concerned with conviction in divine authority, rather than rational belief founded on evidence.

This essay critically argues that it is fundamentally incorrect to claim that the Bible promotes belief that maps proportionally to the degree of available evidence. Such a claim would be at odds with both the theological foundation of faith in the New Testament and the numerous passages that explicitly emphasize belief without requiring a corresponding degree of evidence.

Faith Transcending Evidence: A Dominant Theme

The most striking aspect of New Testament faith is its frequent dissociation from rational, evidence-based belief. Many verses, particularly those that scored in the lower range of the histogram, reveal a pattern of faith that is not only indifferent to evidence but often presented as superior to it. Verses such as John 20:29, where Jesus praises those who believe without seeing, underscore a theological point that belief in God or Christ is valuable precisely when it is held without the need for empirical proof. Jesus tells Thomas, who doubted the resurrection until he could physically touch the wounds of the risen Christ: “Blessed are those who have not seen and yet have believed.”

This passage and others like it reject the notion of proportional belief, where evidence should correspond to conviction. Instead, faith is framed as a kind of moral or spiritual virtue, a test of loyalty and trust that goes beyond the need for verification. Similarly, Matthew 17:20 speaks of faith the size of a mustard seed being able to move mountains—a metaphor that suggests the sheer power of belief over any reliance on proof or evidence. In such contexts, faith becomes something irrational, and the biblical narrative does not attempt to hide or remedy this irrationality. In fact, it often elevates it as a higher form of commitment to divine authority.

Faith as Loyalty: Dismissal of Rationality

The notion that biblical faith is proportionate to the evidence is further contradicted by how often the New Testament encourages faith as a form of loyalty or allegiance rather than as a conclusion drawn from rational assessment. Romans 4:18 describes Abraham as having faith against hope, meaning that he believed God’s promise despite all the evidence to the contrary. This form of faith is explicitly anti-empirical, resting not on the fulfillment of promises already seen but on the hope that divine promises will eventually come to pass, irrespective of the present lack of evidence.

The central role of trust in the biblical concept of faith also becomes evident in the way miracles function within the text. While miracles such as the resurrection of Lazarus in John 11:45 are presented as evidence that causes people to believe, it is equally clear that those who demand miracles to believe are often criticized. For instance, in John 6:30, Jesus’ audience asks him to perform more signs so that they can believe, yet this request for evidence is implicitly seen as a lack of genuine faith. Jesus’ response throughout the Gospels to those who demand signs shows a clear disdain for faith based solely on evidence. This indicates that the primary biblical virtue is not a belief grounded in evidence, but rather unquestioning trust.

Theological Elevation of Faith Without Evidence

The theological underpinnings of New Testament faith are based on trust in divine authority, even when this trust contradicts the available evidence. Faith is often positioned as something that must transcend rational evaluation. The entire construct of salvation through faith, as outlined in passages such as Ephesians 2:8-9, emphasizes grace and trust rather than knowledge or empirical verification. Belief in the resurrection, the central tenet of Christianity, is expected to be accepted on the basis of faith in testimony, even though it is an extraordinary claim that would normally require extraordinary evidence.

Verses like Hebrews 11:1 present faith as “confidence in what we hope for and assurance about what we do not see.” This is a direct rejection of the idea that belief must correspond to the degree of evidence. In fact, the verse suggests that the essence of faith is belief in the absence of evidence. This conception of faith is repeated throughout the New Testament, particularly in the Pauline epistles, which emphasize faith as a matter of trust in God’s promise rather than something grounded in observable, empirical reality.

The doctrine of sola fide, or faith alone, which became central to Christian theology, particularly in Protestantism, further reinforces this idea. Faith is positioned not as a rational conclusion drawn from evidence, but as a gift from God that cannot be attained through reason or works. In this framework, faith is celebrated for its ability to endure in the absence of proof, and in some cases, despite contradictory evidence. This elevation of faith over reason runs counter to any suggestion that biblical belief is proportionate to evidence.

Miracles and the Insufficiency of Evidence

While there are instances in the New Testament where miracles serve as evidence to prompt belief—such as the resurrection of Lazarus in John 11 or the healing miracles performed by Jesus—these moments do not advocate for a belief system that is based on evidence proportionate to conviction. Instead, the biblical narrative often shows miracles as exceptions, and the faith of those who believe without needing signs is consistently presented as superior.

For instance, in John 2:23-24, many people believe in Jesus because of the signs he performed, but the passage goes on to say that Jesus did not fully trust them because “he knew what was in each person.” This implies a kind of inferiority of belief based on evidence, where those who only believe because of signs are viewed with skepticism. Similarly, Luke 16:31 shows Jesus stating that even if someone were to rise from the dead, some people still would not believe, further illustrating the New Testament’s devaluing of evidence-based belief.

Rational Belief and Biblical Faith: A Fundamental Incompatibility

Given the weight of biblical evidence, it becomes clear that the New Testament cannot be interpreted as promoting a belief system grounded in evidence. While there are a few instances where signs and miracles prompt belief, these are not representative of the broader theological approach to faith. Instead, the overarching message is that true faith is something that exists independently of evidence. It is a trust in divine authority, often requiring belief in the unseen or the unproven.

The New Testament narrative, from Jesus’ praise of those who believe without seeing to Paul’s encouragement to walk by faith and not by sight, fundamentally rejects the idea that belief must be proportional to the evidence. Instead, faith is celebrated as an irrational commitment to God’s promises, one that requires believers to abandon their dependence on empirical proof. This is the core theological tension between faith and reason, and it cannot be resolved by attempting to argue that biblical faith is aligned with rational, evidence-based belief.

Conclusion

The New Testament does not promote a belief system in which faith is proportionate to evidence. On the contrary, biblical faith is frequently presented as something that transcends evidence, or even directly contradicts it. While some miracles serve as evidence for belief, the overwhelming emphasis is on trusting God’s promises without requiring proof. In many cases, belief without evidence is considered a virtue, making it impossible to claim that the Bible advocates for a rational belief proportionate to the degree of evidence. Instead, biblical faith is framed as an unwavering commitment to divine authority, often in defiance of rationality or empirical observation.

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The Deceptive Equivocation of πίστις / πιστεύω in Biblical Translations

The translation and interpretation of the Greek terms πίστις (pistis) and πιστεύω (pisteuō) have been sources of theological debate and confusion for centuries. These terms are most commonly translated into English as “faith” or “belief,” but they also carry meanings such as “trust,” “fidelity,” and “allegiance.” This variety of translations has led to a practice of equivocation—the misleading use of multiple meanings of a word to make it appear that biblical faith is synonymous with a belief that maps proportionally to the available evidence. However, a critical examination reveals that this practice distorts the true nature of biblical faith, which often exists independently of, and sometimes in contradiction to, evidence.

Varied Meanings of πίστις / πιστεύω

In the New Testament, the terms πίστις and πιστεύω are translated in several ways depending on context. They can mean faith in the sense of trusting or believing in God, but they can also imply fidelity, allegiance, or confidence. For example, pisteuō is rendered as “believe in” or “believe on” when used with prepositions such as epi (on) or eis (into) (Christian Publishing House Blog). In these cases, the emphasis is on a deeper, more personal trust or reliance on Christ, rather than mere cognitive assent to propositions. This distinction is crucial because it highlights that faith in the Bible is not always about a rational or evidentiary basis; rather, it can be about commitment or loyalty to Jesus, even when evidence is absent or incomplete.

Faith vs. Evidence: A False Equivalence

One of the most misleading applications of equivocation occurs when theologians or apologists argue that biblical faith is proportional to evidence by conflating the cognitive aspect of belief (“belief that”) with the relational and experiential aspect (“belief in”). For instance, in Hebrews 11:1, faith is described as “the assurance of things hoped for, the conviction of things not seen,” which explicitly contrasts faith with empirical evidence. Nevertheless, some modern interpretations attempt to recast faith as a rational response to the overwhelming evidence of God’s existence or Jesus’ miracles (Belief as Saving Faith). This interpretation ignores the broader biblical context where faith often functions independently of proof or reason, requiring trust in divine promises or unseen realities.

Matthew Bates, in his work on the meaning of πίστις (faith), suggests that the term should more accurately be understood as “allegiance” rather than mere cognitive belief. He argues that biblical faith involves loyalty and submission to Jesus as king, which moves far beyond mere assent to theological propositions (Faith as Allegiance). By reducing πίστις to belief in the sense of a rational, evidence-based conviction, interpreters erase the richer, more complex dimensions of the term that encompass commitment and trust even in the absence of proof.

Equivocation in Apologetics and Theological Discourse

The conflation of various meanings of πίστις / πιστεύω is particularly problematic in apologetic arguments that attempt to present biblical faith as rational or evidence-based. Some Christian apologists claim that belief in Jesus is akin to trusting in a reliable source of information, likening faith to the rational acceptance of a well-proven theory (STR). However, this interpretation is selectively using one sense of πίστις—that of “trust”—to argue that biblical faith is proportional to evidence, while ignoring passages that emphasize faith as a leap beyond what can be proven or seen, such as John 20:29, where Jesus praises those who believe without seeing.

Furthermore, the translation of πίστις as “faith” in most English versions of the Bible has perpetuated the idea that biblical faith is a cognitive exercise similar to belief in factual propositions. Yet, as pointed out by Scot McKnight, this simplification has misled generations of readers. He argues that πίστις in the Bible carries connotations of allegiance, not just cognitive belief or trust, especially in the context of salvation (Faith as Allegiance). By overemphasizing “belief” and underemphasizing “allegiance” or “fidelity,” modern translations risk distorting the New Testament’s portrayal of faith as an active, relational commitment.

Conclusion: The Dangers of Equivocation

The variety of translations of πίστις and πιστεύω highlights the complexity of biblical faith, which is often far more relational and trust-based than evidential. The deceptive practice of equivocating between these translations allows for the misleading argument that biblical faith is proportional to the degree of available evidence. This is not supported by the majority of biblical contexts, where faith is portrayed as trust, allegiance, or even hope in the unseen. To present biblical faith as a rational, evidence-based belief is to misunderstand its broader theological and relational dimensions, and it undermines the true nature of faith as expressed in the New Testament.

List of Sources

1. Christian Publishing House Blog: This source discusses the different grammatical constructions of the Greek term πίστις (pistis) and πιστεύω (pisteuō), emphasizing that these terms are translated variously as “faith,” “belief,” “trust,” and other terms depending on context. It explains how believing “in” Jesus differs from believing “on” or “into” Jesus and addresses the theological implications of these distinctions, showing the complexity of translating and interpreting biblical faith.
   • Christian Publishing House Blog on pisteuo
     
2. STR Blog on Belief as Saving Faith: This source highlights the confusion between “belief-that” (cognitive assent) and “belief-in” (relational trust) in biblical contexts. It points out that biblical saving faith involves both aspects but often leans more toward trust and commitment rather than empirical belief, challenging the idea that biblical faith is based purely on evidence.
   • STR Blog: Belief as Saving Faith
     
3. Scot McKnight, Faith as Allegiance: This academic work explores the term πίστις in the New Testament and argues that it is better translated as “allegiance” or “fidelity” rather than “faith” or “belief.” McKnight’s analysis emphasizes that biblical faith is about loyalty and commitment to Christ, not just intellectual assent based on evidence. His scholarship critiques the oversimplification of πίστις in many modern translations.
   • Faith as Allegiance (Review)
     
4. James Moulton, A Grammar of New Testament Greek: This foundational text explains the nuances of Greek grammar in the New Testament, particularly in the use of πίστις and πιστεύω. Moulton’s detailed analysis reveals the various ways these terms are used, providing linguistic evidence that biblical faith is often relational or trust-based rather than purely rational or evidential.
   • A Grammar of New Testament Greek by James Moulton

These sources collectively demonstrate how the translation of πίστις / πιστεύω into various English terms can lead to theological equivocation, misleading readers to believe that biblical faith is always proportional to evidence when, in fact, it is more frequently associated with trust, allegiance, and commitment beyond the realm of empirical proof.

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See also:

#07 ✓ Consider: Would an actual God have written a book of truth missing essential elements of rational thought and belief?

Rationality vs Faith

Evolving Notions of Redemptive Faith

Redemptive Belief

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